Managing Employee Compensation and Benefits Essay

Introduction Libraries and Information Centres’ services in Nigeria are being regarded as humanitarian services and therefore issue of compensation and benefits are not well defined. However, other forms of financial assistance embedded in the Nigeria civil service rule include things like Monetization, National Health Insurance Scheme, Contributory Pension, and Pension Benefits; all of which staff of Libraries and Information Centres also benefit from. Aside this is the Annual Appraisal Form (Aperform) that contains basic requirements expected of an employee before he can be promoted. Nigerian Universities also makes use of this to assess staff in order to determine their remuneration as at when due. For corporate body organizations where special libraries and information centres form part of the organization, compensation and benefits will depend on the annual appraisal or job satisfaction based on criteria spell out in their organization’s handbook. Evaluation forms also contains inter alia: what you are expected to do according to your job descriptions, your relationship with staff, creativity, sense of direction, delegation of duty, which will be rated as either fair, good, very good, satisfactory and excellence. All these indices hinges on employees’ performances. Though an employer compensates his employee with motivation and benefits based on job performance, there is need for job satisfaction. Every employer expects certain degree of result oriented services that would fall in line with his vision and mission while every employee demands job satisfaction. Ordinarily, the management of people at work is an integral part of the management process, put differently, managers need to understand the critical importance of people in their organizations so as to recognize that the human element and the organization are synonymous. (Tella, Adeyemi, and Popoola, 2007) Therefore, it is imperative to compensate an employee with benefits if he merits it. Cascio (2003) opines that because of the importance that compensation holds for people’s lifestyle and self-esteem, individuals are very concerned about what they are paid – a fair and competitive wage, while organizations are also concerned about what they pay because it motivates important decisions  of employees about taking a job, leaving a job and on the job performance. Compensation as a concept according to (Bernadin, 2007) refers to all forms of financial returns and tangible benefits that employee receives as part of employment relationship. Compensation as it were is divided into two parts and these are cash compensation which is the direct pay provided by employer for work performed by the employee and fringe compensation which refers to employee benefit programs. Cash compensation has two elements which include base pay and pay contingent. Base pay has to do with hourly or weekly wages plus overtime pay, shift differential and uniform allowance while pay contingent is concerned with performance allowances such as merit increases, incentive pay bonuses and gain sharing. Fringe compensation on the other hand refers to employee benefits programs. Fringe compensation also has two parts to it which are legally required benefit programs and discretional benefits. Legally required benefit programs include social security, workers compensation while discretional programs include health benefits, pension plans, paid time off, tuition reimbursement, recognition award, foreign service premiums, responsibility allowance, child care, on campus accommodation, promotion, annual increment and a host of others ( Cascio, 2003; Dessler, 2005; Bernadin,2007). Benefits, in a nutshell are the indirect financial and non-financial payments employees receive for continuing their employment with an organization. The concept of employee compensation and benefits cannot be discussed in a vacuum. Various studies have established that salaries and benefits are closely related to job satisfaction (St. Lifer, 1994); and job satisfaction can bring about motivation which in turn affects employee job performance and organizational commitment. Statement of the Problem If one turns his attention solely to academic libraries in Nigeria, it has been observed that certain compensation and benefits enjoyed by faculty lecturers are not extended to practicing academic librarians. The reason may not be farfetched in the sense that the edict that established universities has always considered the university library as a supporting unit, thus placing it and its employees as a second value. This study therefore aims at identifying those benefits and compensation enjoyed by academic staff and  denied professional libraries and its effects on librarians’ job performance and satisfaction; with a view to recommending a way out of the situation. Objectives of the Study This study seeks to achieve the following objectives: 1. To identify the various forms of benefits provided for by library employers. 2. To establish other forms of compensation that academic librarians would like to enjoy outside their salary. 3. To ascertain if there are any other types of benefits enjoyed by their counterparts within the organization that is not extended to them. 4. To establish the relationship between compensation, benefits and job satisfaction among academic librarians Reaction The findings of this study revealed that there is a relationship between employee compensation and job satisfaction as 66.75% of the participants affirmed that they are satisfied with the salary they receive. This is in agreement with St. Lifer (1994) who stated that salaries and benefits are related to job satisfaction. Even at that, 68.6% of the participants would like to be paid overtime/shifting allowance in addition to their salary while 83.3% suggested hazard allowance. However, 29.4% of the participant who probably are sectional heads suggested responsibility allowance. This may not be out of place since their counterparts in the faculty who are heads of departments receive responsibility allowance. After all, some sections of the library have the same number of personnel or more than we have in the departments. Also, the following forms of benefits as revealed by the study are enjoyed by library personnel though at a different level and various percentages. In other of their rating from Babcock University they are: health care, pension, in- service training, retirement plans, child care and conferences/workshop allowance. From University of Lagos, ratings are as follows: in- service training, annual leave, conferences and workshops, promotion, health care, pension and social security. From Lagos State University: annual increment, on campus accommodation in-service training, health care and child care. Findings revealed that insignificant number of participants benefitted from other forms of employee benefits  such as on – campus accommodation, foreign service premiums, tuition refund, reversal of wrong done and conferences/seminars. However, some of the benefits are not available at all to some of the participants. These include: social security, Foreign Service premiums, and on- campus accommodation. The study has revealed that apart from the available forms of benefits to participants, there are others enjoyed by their counterparts in the faculty which they are exempted from. This finding has shown some level of inequity in benefits within these organizations and so cannot be said to be satisfactory. After all satisfaction on a job could be motivated by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers peculiar needs are met (Tella, Ayeni, Popoola, 2007); and working condition that are similar to that of other professions in the locality (Oshagbemi, 2000). Other salient issues raised by participants ranged from exclusion from teaching course work especially that which has to do with students’ use of library which has been hijacked by faculty academic staff, to late night closing without any arrangement on how they will get to their various destinations. This exposes personnel to danger and constitutes security risk. Also some of the respondents complained of not benefitting from some of the internally generated revenue from non-degree awarding programs available in these institutions even when they are made to serve this group of users; whereas their counterparts at faculty benefit from the proceeds. Conclusion and Recommendations Compensation plays an important role in the recruitment and retention of librarians. Though librarians in academic libraries these days enjoy significant increase in their salaries and benefits that are generally provided by their parent institutions, there is still room for improvement. This study has revealed that in some universities, this group of people is denied some benefits that are being enjoyed by their counterparts in the faculty which may be as a result of the library being seen as a support unit of the university. There may be need for university policy makers to review this concept and see university libraries and librarians as integral part of the educational institution. The academic library human resource specialist should therefore set in motion strategies to address especially benefits packages available to library employers across board; as well as creating a  work environment that is appreciative of its employees and conducive to professional growth. The concept of work life balance (Switzer, 2004) which is valued by today’s library employee should be understood and embraced by library human resource specialist. High Income Earners Benefits & Compensation Case Study The Situation: Sam, age 58, and Susie, age 54 Three children living independently Two grandchildren Sam is a top executive of a large company with significant compensation and a benefits package with many options. Sam and Susie’s combined balance sheet tops $8 million, including some concentration in Sam’s employer stock. As Sam and Susie near retirement age, they want to be sure that they make the right financial decisions, particularly in regard to Sam’s company restricted stock awards and stock options. They have a number of things they want to do in retirement, including buying a second home and gifting to their children and grandchildren. They know the importance of making smart choices today to be able to meet these goals but need some direction. The Solution: Payne Wealth Partners’ professional team would start by developing a deep understanding of Sam’s compensation and benefits package including studying company documents and discussing each plan with his human resource department. Next, we would prepared a wealth plan illustrating where Sam and Susie stand today financially and what their future balance sheet may look like under different circumstances. By coordinating choices regarding Sam’s restricted stock awards and stock options — along with all of the other activity in their financial lives — we would be able to maximize the value realized from these company benefits. Additionally, we would work closely with Sam and Susie’s CPA to assure our recommended strategies were tax efficient and feasible, given their income tax picture. Our professional  team would be closely involved in developing and executing key strategies for exercising stock options. An important consideration would be Sam and Susie’s concentration in employer stock, with possible strategies designed to exit positions in a way that were efficient, yet still increased Sam and Susie’s chances of meeting their life goals. Payne Wealth Partners would be recommending an investment management program that considered their present employer stock concentration and that was accompanied by ongoing reporting permitting comparison to appropriate benchmark indexes. Their personal wealth plan would be the platform for relating Sam and Susie’s assets and earnings to their goals as it was revisited and updated over the years. Written recommendations for action items would been integral in staying focused and organized in these complex areas.

To What Extent was the USA a Free and Fair Society in the 1920s?

I don't agree that the USA was a free and fair society in the ‘Roaring Twenties'. Not everyone had the rights to get a good job and earn money. Blacks and immigrants were just some of these minority groups that were prejudiced against. Although this was true, the , of Americans could purchase things they never could before, they could watch â€Å"Nickelodeons†, they could listen to the radio. In this essay I will explain who didn't benefit, who did and to what extent the U. S. Was a free and fair society and explain who was caught in the middle of these groups. There were a number of groups who weren't being treated with liberty and fairness in the 1920s. Many Americans were experiencing this freedom, many others were facing racism and prejudice. A huge majority of Americans were immigrants or descendants of immigrants. It was the more recent immigrants that got the abuse. There was a hierarchy of these new citizens in the big American cities. At the top, and competing for the best jobs and highest salaries, were the bigger and better established groups of Irish-Americans, German-Americans and French Canadians. These groups scorned the newer Eastern Europeans and Italian immigrants, who in turn held contempt for the Mexicans and blacks, who were at the bottom of this scale. The Russian revolution of 1917, sparked communist ideas in Russia and Eastern Europe. The new Russian government had usurped the Tsar Nicholas and killed him and his family. With all the communist ideas floating around the countries below Russia, some were bound to come to America via the immigrants. And they did. The period when the U. S. overnment thought communist ideas were spread around America by anarchists and extremists was known as the Red Scare. Evidence was added to these fears and superstitions in 1919. 400,000 workers went on strike, and then the Boston Police Department striked and all hell broke loose in the city, as theives and looters had free reign over the city. Most people today believed the strikes were not to do with communists, but an economic difficulty. Because the government did not know any better, they thought communists would take over America. These fears weren't untrue, as some immigrants did feel the need to overthrow the government, and so leaflets were published in the city, calling for the abolishment of the current system. Bombs were planted against important figures, and one almost killed the Attorney General, Mitchell Palmer. He asked a man named Hoover to round up people with extremist beliefs. Hoover was a controversial man in history, and he built up 60,000 thousand files and deported 10,000 immigrants because of these extremist ideas. Only 556 of these had hard evidence. Mr Palmer, however, found these purges of communists popular, and used their popularity to run for president. As a result of this, Jews, blacks and even Catholics were accused of being communists. In fact, Palmer accused most minority groups in America. Palmer, though, caused his own undoing. He predicted a Red Revolution and when nothing happened he was ridiculed and lost his popularity. Black people had life very bad in the teens and 20s. The Ku Klux Klan had been revived after a film, and they were originally formed in America's Deep South, to keep the slave descendents in order. However, the clan had much support and managed to get some of its members into high positions of power, such as State Governors. The Klan, however, fell out of favour when its leader, Grand Wizard David Stevenson was accused of sexually motivated murder. The corruption of the Klan then became known to many, and that they were not to be trusted. Not everyone had it bad in the 20s. They were known as the ‘Roaring Twenties' because the equivalent of a revolution was taking place. America was quickly becoming known as the most technologically advanced country in the world, and one with an ever increasing economy. It easily overtook Britain, France and Germany, as these countries had taken sever financial losses in the First World War. The 1920s were described as â€Å"one never-ending party†. Sex was no longer taboo, as it had been in the 1800s and early 20th century. Women were seen as less subservient, and there was certainly a huge decrease in prejudice against them. They had decent jobs although still earned less money for the same job. The motor car had been ingeniously redesigned and reproduced by Henry Ford, founder of the world's largest motor company today. Radios and other luxuries were being mass-produced, and so music was becoming increasingly popular, especially Jazz. Wages were raised and so people could spend more money on what they wanted to spend it on. The film industry was being developed and Hollywood had been discovered. It is still the place today where the majority of films are made. The cinema was the most popular pastime of the American population. Films were silent until 1927, but were still incredibly popular, and more cinema tickets were being sold in a week than in a year in Britain today. Films about the former taboo subject of sex were being watched by millions of people. Women had major roles in these films and one of the most successful film stars of the 20s was a woman, Gloria Swanson. Because sex was no longer frowned upon, it was increasing outside marriage. The majority of the American population was incredibly happy. There is an extent to which the freedom and fairness goes in the U. S.. Women for example had it two ways. They were certainly less controlled by men, but they still couldn't work the top jobs or earn as much money in the same job as men. They didn't have the same rights still, although they were greatly improved. Black Americans could work a wider range of jobs, but were still prejudiced against and earned little money. This is why I do not think that the USA was a completely free and fair society in the 1920s, because not everyone had equal rights. Blacks are still treated awfully in the Deep South of America today, so the society is still not free or fair. Using this evidence, I don't think any society could be completely free and fair, as racism, prejudice and chauvinism has gone on for centuries.

Resistance Efforts of the Biblystock Ghetto, Sobibor Concentration Essay

Resistance Efforts of the Biblystock Ghetto, Sobibor Concentration Camp uprising, and Partisian Groups - Essay Example Despite their defeat, the Jews chose to die while resisting the Nazis rather than die in concentration camps helpless. Many of the Jews were eventually brutally killed even though they tried to resist. Some committed suicide while others just waited for fate to take its course. (Arad 323). Most of the resisters were confined and later transported to concentration camps, and others were murdered on the spot. The efforts of the Jews living in Biblystock ghetto were not successful as expected by the Jews. Most of them were killed after their resistance failed to bore fruits. Sobibor concentration camp accommodated Jews deported from diverse locations like â€Å"France, Germany, Poland† and other areas (Arad 324). The Jews were transported by train to the camp, and later killed in gas chambers. More than two hundred thousand Jews were killed in Sobibor. The Jews decided to be rebellious and decided to form an organization that was to kill German soldiers. Their objective was to free themselves from the sufferings and brutal killings. Nonetheless, their mission was not successful the Jews were only able to kill eleven German soldiers and a few camp guards. Their initial objective was to kill the German soldiers, and walk out of the camp free (Arad 325). Nonetheless, the murder of the soldiers and camp guards were discovered and the camp was set on fire. The prisoners tried free themselves from the fire, but only a half of the total prisoners were able to escape from the camp. In the end only a few of the escapees endured the war, while the rest of the prisoners died in mine fields and others were recaptured and brutally killed by the Germans (Arad 326). Partisans groups started forming resistance organization after the German soldiers attacked them. The partisans’ resistance was considered one of the successful resistances against the Germans (Arad 327). At the initial stages, the group was poor in resources and without

Explain the central ideas of the text, paying particular attention to Research Paper

Explain the central ideas of the text, paying particular attention to how the author explores the relationship between film and - Research Paper Example It is no wonder that the issue of racism and colonialism has been covered in cinema numerous times with a further criticism expounded in different literary works. Sundry authors tried to display the problem of racism expressing own attitude to its consequences and influence on political and social sphere of life. Among a long list of such examples, there are Daniel Leab, Donald Bogle, Richard Maynard, Ralph Friar, Lester Friedman and many others who made an attempt to research the rate of veracity in the representation of colonial aspects in cinematography. Despite the fact demonstration of colonised nations contains a high level of distortion and it hardly can be compared to the real events, Stam and Spence (2009) consider that the biggest mistake of all critics is that they tend to forget that films in most cases are invention, fable and fiction. While numerous researchers focus on plot and characters analysing ‘positive images’, it has been found that frequently such images may be accepted as subversive leading to counterproductive effect and spreading racism in spite of their favourable representation and good intentions. The research of Stam and Spence takes into account the effect of sexism and anti-Semitism to provide a study on methodology and analysis on representations of texts. The authors explain the most important definitions such as colonialism, the Third World and racism. Hence, it has been concluded that historically racism evolved from the colonisation process and representatives of racism became those people who suffered from colonisation. Racism by its nature is not only the process of putting standards on values, asserting benefits of some nations and disparaging of other people, but it is a powerful source of scorn, violence, discrimination and crime. The idea to depict colonialism firstly started in literature where subjection of nations was considered as a way to eliminate overall ignorance and tyranny. Glorification of colon ialism can be met in the works of Daniel Defoe, Montaigne and even Shakespeare. The depiction of racism in the films that more often occurred in the beginning of twentieth century showed colonised nations from negative sides, which was not an unpredicted action of European film-makers. According to the research of Stam and Spence (2009), the history has been misinterpreted and falsely represented by cinematography that used to put cliches and unfair images on oppressed people. Numerous errors have been made in Hollywood films that misinform their viewers and change the real events. Hence, the representation of safari as a jungle with beasts of prey or the depiction of the period right after the Second World War without the existence of one single black person can be a good example of such blunders. Due to the conclusions of the authors, the most significant error of films is not the picture of changed stereotypes but the lack of oppressed groups as it happened with the exclusion of blacks on the screen. At the same time, the American musicals with the participations of only black actors were made by white film-makers especially for black audience and also could be accepted as racism since there was a total absence of white actors for saving the fabrication of existed stereotypes. Another wrong tendency that can be noticed in the European and American films is the usage of incorrect language when

Scientific research assignment #2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Scientific research assignment #2 - Essay Example ts has planet-centric view in that is necessary to assume that the building blocks of life on Mars are analogous to that of Earth and so will be carbon-based. It was apparent in the 70s that Martian surface conditions are strongly oxidized and that this complicates efforts to detect biological life. The Urey was developed by NASA-funded researchers to work in these highly oxidized conditions. This instrument has the ability to differentiate between left-handed and right-handed amino acids with its The Mars Organic and Occident Detector (MOD) (Skelley et al., 2006). All life on Earth is comprised of chains of amino acids, although these may be to non-biological means as well. Earth life overwhelmingly tends to be comprised of left-handed amino-acids. The Urey is able to detect both types of amino acids through an oxidant instrument that has microsensors coated with various chemicals painted on like a film. Urey will be able to detect key molecules associated with life at a sensitivity roughly a million times greater than previous instrumentation, that because it is the one with the highest sensitivity for organic chemicals. In a contrasting study, Steel and colleagues (2004) are part of the interdisciplinary, international Arctic Mars Analogue Svalbard Expedition (AMASE) team formed to develop a sampling and analysis instrument that can make real-time decisions on the surface of the planet as to weather searches for life should continue in those areas. The instrument is being created to form a two-phase investigative approach; first the surface is analyzed to determine an ideal target site; following samples and analyses are used to study the actual samples collected. Candy et al. (2003) proposed that developments of instruments that extend knowledge about extraterrestrial life are able to be made using morphological biosignatures. These signatures consist of conclusive microbial fossils as well as microbial influenced sedimentary structures. A microbial fossil

Australia's Apparel Industry Analysis Research Paper

Australia's Apparel Industry Analysis - Research Paper Example The Australian apparel industry can be classified into menswear and womenswear market. In the menswear segment the total revenues in 2008 was $3524.4 million. The compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) during the period 2004-2008 was 3.9%. The total revenue generated by the apparel retail industry of Australia in 2008 was $12.8 billion with a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.4% during the period 2004 to 2008 (researchandmarkets, n.d.). The total number of apparel retailers in 2001 was 10,673 and they were distributed across Australia unequally depending on population density. The apparel retailers were mainly located in key cities like Sydney, Perth, Brisbane and Melbourne. Victoria and New South Wales account for more than 80% turnover in in the textile, clothing and footwear segment (Ahern, 2004). Designer Wears: Australian designers are very well updated of the latest fashion trends in Europe, US and the local trends in Australia. They produce quality fashion products at competitive prices and some of them are also able to compete with international players. Designer wear particularly from Italy are highly respected and accepted by the Australians. Products from Italy usually cater to the premium segment since they are priced high and mainly include high end leather wears. The Australian apparel market like other western markets is highly fragmented or segmented. The segmentation is not only based on income but also on gender, body type, age and aesthetic preference. This result in the market being broken up into small national markets based on lifestyle. Moreover compared to other western countries Australians spend less on apparel because of the moderate climate and their casual lifestyle. Australians spend a large portion of their income on housing, communication equipment and transportation. The price reductions prompted by trade liberalization has reduced the share of apparels in household expenditure considerably in the past ten

Service Learning Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Service Learning Project - Essay Example Finally, I also joined the brainstorming session for Friday’s event where we discussed what was to be presented, and I gave some ideas that were well received. This service-learning project was appropriate for my BComm program course for various reasons, mostly in equipping me with abilities, skills, and knowledge required for a successful career in private and public sectors. The project helped me to explore the communications aspect of the course, as I was able to engage in textual, visual, and verbal messages for a specific audience, in this case, those who are to attend the religious event, which is important to my professional and academic success. It also helped me to explore the information literacy aspect through recognition of required information and the retrieval, evaluation, and effective use of information during my work at the Society’s library. I was also able top engage in teamwork during the brainstorming session that was a valuable lesson in how to interact with other team members during one of the important stages of team decision making. Finally, the project helped me learn about the social and ethical responsibi lity aspect of the course, as I was involved in planning for an event through which the Society was giving back to the

Writing homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Writing homework - Essay Example It is not as if progress cannot happen in a state controlled protectionist system, and be competitive with a free market system. However, the author’s assertions that free trade is superior to protectionism generally is a convincing argument overall. To move from national politics to a more global perspective, it is also important to understand the role of labor in other countries in contrast to its role in the US, and Roberts concentrates mostly on a global workforce. For example, the role of labor unions in Europe is more totalized than it is in the United States. In the U.S., unions represent exact and specific parts of industries and call for more benefits and worker’s rights to be brokered with individual companies. In Europe, unions represent the entire industry because their groups are put together and are more powerful. They call for less specific issues, since they are representing an entire industry in Europe, though. More sweeping changes are possible this way, but the changes are less specifically geared to the immediate concerns of workers in a certain segment of the industry. In terms of labor participation in management, this was unheard-of many years ago, but is becoming more common both in the U.S. and in ternationally. Employees are more frequently being included in the decision-making process and communication is growing between employees and managers, despite political setbacks and setbacks in the US involving union membership and union density. â€Å"The real choice is between a dynamic world and a static world---a world of encouraging people to dream and acquire the skills to make those dreams come true and a world of encouraging people to be content with what they have and to dream less† (Roberts, 2000). The argument for and against international economics is basically a reflection of bigger argument about theoretical issues of protectionism and free trade, which was mentioned above. In this international argument,

Canada Agriculture Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Canada Agriculture Industry - Essay Example Therefore, the development of farming and food manufacturing figures significantly in the industrial development strategy of every province. Relations between the farm sector and the non-farm sector are composite and of growing importance. In 1985, farm production inputs acquired from the nonfarm sector and payments for borrowed capital signified 78 percent of total farm operating expenditures, with interest costs alone accounting for 13.5 percent of total expenditures. This rising assimilation of the farm and industrial sectors has reduced the role and importance of established agricultural policies. The agri-food complex is at present influenced as much by macroeconomic factors, such as growth, inflation, and interest rates, as it is by agricultural policies per se (Finkle, P., and W. H. Furtan. 1988). By thirty to forty percent of agricultural output currently exported, and with comparatively low border protection for all merchandise except milk, poultry, and eggs, farming in Canada is also internationalized and incorporated into the world food economy. As a result, the view for Canadian agriculture is mainly dependent on supply and demand conditions in the world markets for grains, oilseeds, and red meats, and on other countries farm policies, food trade arrangements, and trade activities. This contact to world market conditions provides the affirmed justification for many of Canadas agricultural commodity programs, which are intended to provide producers with some protection from cyclical and intermittent market instabilities and from the policy-induced distortions reassigned from world markets. Canada has proposed that a broad agricultural package is accepted in principle at an early date (phase one); that comprehensive national plans for implementing the overall cut in the negotiating measure contracted to in the first phase be presented and agreed on (phase two).

Assessing General George Thomas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Assessing General George Thomas - Essay Example In his early days, George would show his feelings towards the disenfranchised, despite the consequences present at the time. In this case, "George Henry Thomas was born July 31, 1816, at Newsom's Depot, VA. Growing up on a plantation, Thomas was one of many who violated the law and taught his family's slaves to read," ("About.com", p.1). From a personal standpoint, Thomas' desire to help those despite the presence of existing laws against such help at the time, would show a sense of character and consideration for those around him. At a point in time, George would seek to pursue a career in law. Such a career path choice, would last for only a short period of time. It would be at this period in time that George would elect to enroll at West Point. While at the academy, one of his associates would be William T. Sherman, who shared a room with the young Thomas. At this point in time, "Becoming friendly rivals, Thomas soon developed a reputation among the cadets for being deliberate and cool-headed. Graduating 12th in his class, Thomas was commissioned as a second lieutenant and assigned to the artillery," ("About.com", p.1). By having a mentality of sharp thinking and level headedness, it would enable Thomas to effectively execute his responsibilities to the men and his unit and better serve the cause. The com The commanding officer which George would have had during the Second Seminole conflict that took place in Florida, described him in this manner, "I never knew him to be late or in a hurry. All his movements were deliberate, his self-possession was supreme...," ("About.com", p.1). By taking into consideration the appraisal of George Thomas by his commanding officer, it would further outline a man who would possess an attitude towards structure and a conviction for steadfast behavior. General Thomas' career would essentially begin with the Mexican American War. During this conflict, Thomas would be provided with the opportunity to increase his held rank not once, but in fact would do it twice. With regards to the Civil War, George Thomas would see his career begin in one area and then shift to another as time would go on. He would take part in the conflict known as the First Battle of Manassas but in the end, would be transferred to what would be referred to as the western theatre for the remainder of the war. In reference to the time after Thomas would arrive in the western region of the battle front, "Thomas began his time in the Western Theater by commanding an independent force in eastern Kentucky, which defeated Confederate forces at Mill Springs in early 1862," ("George Thomas", p.1). As one of the battles that Thomas would be a part of, this battle would provide to be essential. In these terms, "This battle is seen as one of the first important Union victories in the war," ("George Thomas", p.1). For this battle to have been considered an important aspect of the victories seen by the union movement that would only serve to elevate George Thomas, to an even higher standing within the military hierarchy of status and importance. It would be during the same year as the victory seen at Mill Springs that George Thomas would see another increase in rank. This time, he would in fact become a Major General and would take, "..command of four divisions from Grant's former Army of the Tennessee and one from the

ICT Specification Essay Example for Free

ICT Specification Essay This business is a company based on renting cars that are owned by the company itself to people which are in need of transportation and are willing to pay a one-off payment most cases to hire a car that may include a chauffeur if required this will be at extra cost. This company offers a number of things: * Unlimited mileage for your whole rental (except in a few instances*) * All mandatory insurances * A guaranteed discount for booking on line! * Waiver for collision damage liability (so you dont pay for damage to the vehicle, except for a normal excess and exceptions) * Waiver for vehicle theft (so you do not pay if your rental car is stolen, except for an excess) * All other direct charges or surcharges known pre-booking (with a few exceptions*) The company also has their own web page which can be used for various things. www.carrentals.co.uk It is run by Mr F James who started this business 4 years ago independently and has successfully been the manager at their main office which is located: 16 Waterworks street Aston Birmingham B6 6TR Overall they employ 15 people not including Mr James. These people do various jobs such as: * Customer services: await phone calls from the customers that have already rented a car encase there are any problems or any issues that need solving or they need assistance with. * Answering phones calls at first stage: this is when customers might call in for information or are first giving in their details to the company, to enable them access to a car. * Availability and returns personal: these are the people that update the database with information on cars that are available, new or they make sure the cars are return in the same condition they were handed out on. * Repairs: this is a mechanic who will restore and check the cars before they are given to the next customer. * Chauffeur: these are the personal that drive the customers if they require a driver. * Admin people: these are the people that keep control of the situation and make sure that everything is going according to their specification and they are meeting their customers needs. Furthermore this type of personal is in charge of all toe new buys the company makes for example in cars and they make sure improvements are made. The customers of this business are people in need to rent a car these people could be anyone whom for example, is in need of a trip therefore renting a car or is arriving at a new city or country and needs a pickup from the airport or wants a car to roam around the city with. Also there could be customers that are tired of driving the same car every day and want to upgrade to a higher class car for a week so that they can give themselves a luxurious experience.

Malaysian Market For Sago Palm

Malaysian Market For Sago Palm In this chapter, we will discuss the background of Malaysia market for sago. The discussion of the market consists of production, consumption, export and price. To understand about sago, we will first briefly discuss on sago palm, sago starch and sago processing. 1.1 Sago Palm Sago palm or Metroxylon sagu is a crop that produces starch for food and non-food processing industries. Sago palm is widely cultivated in Sarawak with more than 60,000 hectare of area recently. Commercial cultivation area for sago palm was increased from 43 hectare in 1988 to 10,700 hectare in 1996 and the remaining was cultivated by smallholders. In year 2000, there are 21 sago processing plants which produced around 60,000 tonne of sago starch. In west Malaysia, sago palm cultivation is too small with only 2 sago processing plant operated in Johor. 1.2 Sago Starch Most of sago starch that been produced in Sarawak is used in west Malaysia (almost 30,000 tonne). Sago also been exported as high quality food grade starch and low quality industry grade starch. Export for food grade starch was increased from 3,600 tonne in 1985 to 11,000 tonne in 1995 while export for industry grade starch was decreased from 8,400 tonne in 1985 to 5,100 tonne in 1995. The major destinations for sago starch export are Japan, Singapore, United Kingdom, Taiwan, Canada, South Korea, New Zealand and Thailand. 1.3 Sago Processing Sago Palm Sago palm took 10 to 15 years to be matured. When sago palm is matured, it will be felt down so that its trunk can be cut. Sago palm has a huge trunk, upright, reaches a height of 10-12 meters, with the contents of the soft and contain high starch content. It is a staple food source for indigenous people in Sabah and Sarawak, including ethnic Bisaya, and Melanau. Sago Log Sago trunk is cut into section with each section is 75 cm to 90 cm long. This section is known as sago log. Every sago trunk yield around 10 to 12 sago log. Then, these sago logs will be tied together in the form of rafts and tugged by boats to sago processing plant through river. Sometimes, these sago logs are carried by lorry to sago processing plant. Processing Sago Starch Processing of sago starch is done in the sago processing plant. In the sago extraction process, the sago logs are first debarked, followed by maceration using a rasper. Newer types of raspers have eliminated the need for debarking. The sago chips resulting from the maceration process are then further disintegrated using a hammer mill. The starch slurry is then passed through a series of centrifugal sieves to remove the coarse fibres. Cyclone separators are then used to extract the starch which is then dried using a rotary vacuum drum drier, followed by hot air drying. 1.4 Malaysia Market for Sago Source: Department of Agriculture, Sarawak. Agricultural Statistics of Sarawak From table 1.4, we can see how the development and the status of sago industries in Malaysia were. The number figure shows inconsistency in the export of sago starch every single year. Thus, it is influenced by the current economic climate. We can see that the figure of the total export of sago starch are not really consistence compared to its price which is going high all the way starting from the year of 1993 until it reaches its highest price in the year 1998. The year after, the figure shows that the price is going down. Even though, the total of production was increased in 2002 and 2003. The lowest price ever was in year 1993 where it was only around RM584 per tonne for industry grade starch and RM596 per tonne for food grade starch. The highest price was RM915 per tonne for industry grade starch and RM 897 food grade starch in the year 1998; a year after the economic erosion occurs. From the view of total export quantity and production, Malaysia produced the highest quantity of sago starch back in the year 1995 where it reaches its highest possible production with exported quantity up to 45,130.96 tonne for food grade starch and 4,816.43 tonne for industry grade starch. The lowest total production was in the year 1997 where only 27,285.50 tonne of food grade starch and 5,121.83 tonne of industry grade starch were exported; the same year when the economic erosion occurs. If referred to the net export value, the biggest amount is during the sago price recorded its highest price which is in year 1998. The amount is RM5, 638,142. Meanwhile, the lowest export value was in year 1993 with the net total of export value is RM2, 314,787. CHAPTER 2: CURRENT POLICIES DESCRIPTION 2.0 Introduction This chapter will discuss the agricultural policies relevant to sago; providing an accurate, clear understanding of the policies affecting the market for sago and its product. There are 4 policies that relevant to sago consist of policies by the Malaysia government (federal) and Sarawak government (state). 2.1 Sarawak Policy on Sago Plantation (Before NAP3) The Sarawak government is trying to pioneer the cultivation of sago on a plantation scale, trying to tap 20th century agricultural technology and large-scale organisational structure to grow this supposedly wonder crop. The aim of sago plantations is the application of modern, scientific agricultural technology and a large-scale institutional organisation, to exploit the cultivation of sago that has thus far been cultivated in a very primitive and semi-wild fashion. This is the first attempt at growing sago on a plantation scale anywhere in the world. Since the clone material and plantation technology for sago palm have not been established by private entrepreneurs, Sarawak government had developed the policies to cultivate sago palm on a plantation scale. With proper drainage, maintenance and fertilizer in plantation, sago palm will mature faster. This will increase the productivity of sago palm which supply starch to the local and international market. 2.2 Third National Agricultural Policy (NAP3) on Sago (1998-2010) In NAP3, sago is fallen under the group of new product and future industries. The policy objective for this group is: To develop innovative products and new industries which will provide source for the development of agriculture in the future The strategies for this policy are: To strengthen the economy base To generate and encourage private sector participation To reduce cost and increased productivity, commercial sago cultivation in large scale by private sector has been encouraged. This has been done alone by private sector and in collaboration with government subsidiaries. Infrastructures and basic facilities have been provided by the government to support the production of sago by private sector. Furthermore, cultivation with high quality seeds and better agronomy practices has been done to increase the productivity of sago smallholders. Sago cultivation has been encouraged on peat soil area in Sarawak due to the suitable of this crop with peat soil. This is the best way to use peat soil area in natured way. Production of value-added sago based products have been implemented to wider the market opportunities. The products include modified sago starch, sorbitol, dextrin and ascorbic acid. Research and development on both upstream and downstream activities for sago has been strengthen. The activities include: Breeding high quality crops material Farm management Processing technology New products development Usage of side products including wasted materials and sago scraps Sago smallholders have been encouraged to wider their farm through institution support. Research and market encouragement for sago starch and other sago products have been stressed due to strengthen the existing market and venture the new market. Sago processing plants have been encouraged to practice quality control management. Investment and strategic raw material gain for upstream industry has been encouraged. This is to sustain the supply of sago in the industry. To control the wasted materials and sago scraps, pollution control management has been implemented. 2.3 Sarawak Policy on Sago (Based on NAP3) Sarawak Policy on Sago has been formulated, planned and developed from NAP3 by Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak (MoMA). The policy is for sago starch-based product industry as a potential industry and sago as a crop industry. For sago starch-based product industry as a potential industry, the policy objective is: To explore new frontier industry which might have substantial return to the local producers and the economy The strategies for this policy are: To encourage private sector participation To intensify research and development on sago starch product development For sago as a crop industry, the policy objective is: To develop and expand sago industry and exploit the opportunities of market of sago and sago starch-based products The strategies for this policy are: To assist smallholder in planting sago using mini estate approach To encourage private sector participation in planting and processing of sago 2.4 Ninth Malaysia Plan; Policy on Sago Under the Ninth Malaysia Plan, sago is one of the crops that included in land consolidation and rehabilitation. Land consolidation and rehabilitation will be continued on a larger scale to accelerate the modernisation of smallholdings as well as increase productivity of the crops. CHAPTER 3: OBJECTIVE Objective To determine Sago cultivation area in Sarawak To determine policy implication on Sago industry in Sarawak To determine the changes of policy in Sago industry CHAPTER 4: POLICY ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction In this chapter, we will analyze the effects of policy that have been discussed in the previous chapter. The policy that we will analyze here is the Sarawak Policy on Sago based on NAP3. 4.1 Effects on Sago Cultivation Area According to Chew, Abu Hassan Isa and Mohd. Ghazali Mohayidin (1999), the aim of sago plantations is the application of modern, scientific agricultural technology and a large-scale institutional organisation, to exploit the cultivation of sago that has thus far been cultivated in a very primitive and semi-wild fashion. With commercial planting on large scale have been encouraged through the policies, the sago cultivation area was increased. The estimated area for sago cultivation in 1998 is 45,000 ha and it increased to 60,700 ha in 2000 (Third National Agricultural Policy, 1998) Since year 2000, the estimated area for sago cultivation in Sarawak is over 60,000 ha and slowly increased from year to year. The increment of sago cultivation area in Sarawak from year 2000 to 2004 is shown as below (Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005). Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Hectares (ha) 60,709 61,523 62,141 63,053 62,308 % compared to other crops 7.8 7.6 7.3 7.1 6.7 Table 4.1: Estimated Area for Sago Cultivation Source: Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005 Even though the area for sago cultivation is increased in term of hectares, but in term of percentage compared to other crops, sago cultivation is decreased. The policies might be effective to increase the area of sago cultivation, but the increment is rather too slow compared to other crops especially oil palm. Figure 4.1.1: Sago Cultivation Area in Sarawak Source: Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005 Figure 4.1.2: Percentage of Sago Cultivation Area Compared to Other Crops in Sarawak Source: Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005 4.2 Effects on Sago Starch Export and Starch Import The highest sago starch export was in 1998 with 46,518.43 tonne of sago starch was exported and the value of it was RM41, 855,722 with price per tonne is RM897 for food grade starch and RM915 for industry grade starch (Craun Research Sdn Bhd, 2004). After 1998, the sago starch export decreased making the worst export value was in year 2000 with only 36,382.78 tonne was exported and the value of it was RM29,782,916 with price per tonne is RM830 for food grade starch and RM766 for industry grade starch. This might be derived from the price drop of starch in world market. The effects of the policies were only been seen after year 2000 where the export value of sago starch increased every year starting from year 2001 to 2004. Only in year 2003, the export value was decreased by RM55,000. The export value of sago starch from year 1998 to 2004 is shown as below (Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005). Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Export Value (RM000) 42,182 36,450 29,783 30,680 32,165 32,110 37,020 Table 4.2.1: The Export Value of Sago Starch SOURCE: Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005 While exporting sago starch, Malaysia still has to import other starch due to local consumption. In year 1997, estimated total production of sago starch in Malaysia is 60,000 tonne with almost 30,000 was used for local consumption (Third National Agricultural Policy, 1998). In 1998, the import value of starch was RM552,000 made it was the highest import value for starch. With local demand for starch is good for food and non-food industries, the policies were able to support the supply of starch in local market. It helps to reduce the import value of starch in 1999 to RM55,000. From this year, the import value of starch per year was going up and down where in year 2000 there is no starch was imported. The import value of starch from year 1998 to 2004 is shown as below (Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005). Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Import Value (RM000) 552 55 134 0 45 71 57 Table 4.2.2: The Import Value of Starch Source : Ministry of Modernisation of Agriculture Sarawak, 2005 Figure 3.2: Export Value of Sago Starch and Import Value of Starch from 1998 to 2004 4.3 Effect on Sago Research Involvement According to Chew, Abu Hassan Isa and Mohd. Ghazali Mohayidin (1999), there was no private group and only two government centres carrying out research on sago in Malaysia. Researches on sago are important to avoid the extinction of sago industry in Malaysia. When the policies were implemented, Land Custody and Development Authority of Sarawak (PELITA) have formed Craun Research Sdn Bhd to carry out research and development on sago. Craun Research Sdn Bhd was once lead by former Sarawak MARDI Director, Mr. Yusup Bin Sobeng. The policies also encouraged local universities to carry out research on sago. With UPM already carry out researches on sago before the policies; UNIMAS have joined them to do more researches on sago. Recently on 4 August 2006, UNIMAS signed an MOU with New Century Fermentation Research Co. Ltd. (NECFER) of Fukoka to enable both institutions to cooperate and collaborate in the establishment of the fermentation parameters and structural set-up in a joint research and development endeavour on sago starch fermentation for large-scale production of ethanol and lactic acid. 4.4 Effects on Private Sector Involvement in Sago Plantation Presently, sago is grown in Sarawak as a smallholders crop (Chew, Abu Hassan Isa and Mohd. Ghazali Mohayidin, 1999). When Land Custody and Development Authority of Sarawak (PELITA) started the development of two sago plantations; Dalat Sago Plantation and Mukah Sago Plantation, several private companies in Sarawak got the initiative to involve in sago industry. With the policy encouraged private sector participation in planting and processing of sago, the numbers of private companies involve in sago plantation and processing had increase. Now, private companies which involve in sago industry have their own association for the benefits of members in the industry. Sarawak Sago Manufacturers Association is the well known sago companies association in Sarawak. It is joined by: Nee Seng Ngeng Sons Sago Industries Sdn Bhd Nitsei Sago Industries Sdn Bhd Song Ngeng Sago Industries (EM) Sdn Bhd C. L. Nee Sago Industries Sdn Bhd Grand Safeways (S) Sdn Bhd Igan Sago Industries Sdn Bhd 4.5 Effects on Traditional Sago Starch Production Before the policy was introduced, there were 11 modern sago processing plants in Sarawak which had fixed assets and equipment valued around RM2-RM5 million (Chew, Abu Hassan Isa and Mohd. Ghazali Mohayidin, 1999). The policy helps to increase this number to 21 modern sago processing plant in year 2000. The increasing number of modern sago processing plant had slowly replaced the production of traditional sago starch called lemantak with high quality, dry sago flour. 4.6 Effects on Sago Starch Contribution in World Starch Market In the world market, sago starch has to compete with other starch such as maize starch, potato starch, cassava starch and wheat starch. According to ISO Technical Committees (2005), the world starch output was estimated to be 48.5 million tons in year 2000. Below is the total export value (in USD) for starches in world market based on type of starches between years 2000 to 2002 (ISO Technical Committees, 2005). 2000 2001 2002 Wheat Starch 79,299,188 66,494,945 71,158,617 Maize Starch 247,354,215 254,598,496 250,744,561 Potato Starch 186,513,628 192,451,543 189,591,770 Cassava Starch 155,221,419 146,818,270 27,307,528 Other Starch 44,592,792 42,295,983 42,245,903 Table 3.6: Export Value (USD) for Starches in World Market Source: ISO Technical Committees, 2005 Other starch in table 3.6 refers to barley starch, rice starch, sago starch and waxy xaize starch. Though the export value of other starch is decreased from year 2000 to 2002, it was only 5% reduction compared to 82% reduction of cassava starch. However, the percentage or reduction for other starch including sago starch is higher than wheat starch, maize starch and potato starch. The policy to develop and expand sago industry in Malaysia helps to make Malaysia been acknowledged as one of the main exporter for starch in the world market. Malaysia also been acknowledged as the highest sago starch exporter in the world (ISO Technical Committees, 2005). CHAPTER 5: POLICY IMPLICATIONS This chapter will discuss the positive and negative aspects of the policies analyzed in the previous chapter. The discussion demonstrates a close relationship between the analysis in the previous chapter and the implications drawn in this chapter about the positive and negative aspects of the policies analyzed. 5.1 Positive Aspects First positive aspect, the policies implicate the sago cultivation to be increased. With 1.69 million hectares of peat soil in Sarawak, the policies had increased the sago cultivation area. This was due to the encouragement of private sector participation in sago plantation and the assistant of smallholder in planting sago using mini estate approach. Private sectors will not just focusing to oil palm plantation in term of the land usage in Sarawak. Even though sago is less profitable compared to oil palm, the policies which imply government support in sago cultivation helps to involve private sector in sago cultivation. Second positive aspect, the policies implicate the export and import of starch in Malaysia. With current consumption of starch in Malaysia is estimated around 100,000 tonne per year, the policies help to increase the supply of starch for local consumption. More than half of sago starch is been exported because of its high value as food grade starch and industry grade starch. This is more profitable than using it for local consumption. However, the usage of sago starch for local consumption still can support the local demand where the import value of starch in Malaysia is far too small (below RM80,000 from year 2001) compared to the export value of sago starch. Third positive aspect, the policies implicate the sago researches involvement in Malaysia. The policies help to increase the number of government subsidiaries and private group involvement in sago researches and development. The researches mostly focus on increasing its starch yield, reducing the gestation period of sago and reducing the cost of sago production. Fourth positive aspect, the policies implicate the income of sago smallholders. With most of sago palm is cultivated by smallholders, the policies help to increase their income. Most of sago farmers are having income from non-sago agricultural activities or from off-farm employment. This is because sago palm has the gestation period of 10 to 15 years which considered as too long to generate income. The policies are focusing on economic strategies in planting sago at farm level where the farmers can maximize the profit in sago cultivation. Fifth positive aspect, the policies implicate the collaboration between federal government and state government. With agriculture as the third instrument to generate Malaysias economy, the policies play an important role in developing the abundant crop such as sago. The federal government creates policies to develop sago cultivation for the state government. Then the state government will innovatively formulate, plan and develop the policies to be implemented. The policies consist of budget and land for sago cultivation. Finally, the policies ensured sago not to be abundant and will be developed to support the agriculture industry as well as other industries in Malaysia. 5.2 Negative Aspects First negative aspect, the policies implicate the manipulation of private companies in sago industry. Most of private companies that involve in planting and processing sago have their own association to protect their importance in the industry. They might control the price of sago section (sago trunk which is cut to yield its starch) and the fee for transportation to factories. When this happened, the sago smallholders might gain small profit or even worst they gain loss. Second negative aspect, the policies implicate the traditional value of sago processing. With the number of modern sago processing plant is increased, the traditional, small-scale cottage mills which produce a type of inferior wet sago called lementak for the local markets are slowly being wiped out. The Melanau community especially will slowly lose their traditional way in processing sago. Finally, the policies are considered not very effective in developing sago industry. This can be seen in the small increment of sago cultivation area for the past 5 years compare to other crop in Malaysia. CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS Even though, sago is considered by many plant scientists, especially Japanese scientists, as the starch crop of the 21st century (Jong, 1995), the present method of cultivation of sago palm shows that it is currently grown using very primitive agricultural technology. Sago is at present grown essentially as a smallholder crop, producing low yields with minimal maintenance and zero fertilization. Current methods of cultivation in Sarawak is not that much different from what had occurred through the millennium and what is occurring now in the virgin, unexplored jungles of Papua New Guinea. The policy was implemented and sago industry also given impotency in Sarawak region. The cultivation area was showing increment and the yield as well, at the same time Malaysia market and world market for sago also increase. We found every policy try their level best to develop the sago industry from cultivation up to market it. Now they also start focus in research and development (RD), which will improve the sago industry. The sago plant lot of RD, to improve the plant and make it more economically profit. In sago industry there need two important thing need to improve. Make sure the plant produce high starch or high yield and decrease the gestation period that is from 10 to 15 years to 5years. The yield can be improved by good plant materiel and good plant breeding as well. This can only be achieved by a prolonged, sustained research program in plant selection and breeding work. The spectacular improvements in the yield of oil palm and its maturity period in Malaysia were achieved by a similar long-term research program, undertaken by a wide variety of governmental and private groups, beginning in the 1900s (Hartley, 1967). Unfortunately, there are currently no private groups carrying out research on sago in Malaysia. In fact, there are now only two government centers, the Dalat Sago Research Station and CRAUN (Crop Research and Application Unit, Lembaga Pembangunan dan Lindungan Tanah, Sarawak or PELITA), carrying out research on sago cultivation. The amount of research resource devoted to sago is clearly inadequate for the monumental task of converting sago from its present semi-wild status to a modern clone with high yields, short maturity periods and responsiveness to fertilizers. The proper management and good care to sago will improve Sarawak Sago industry and the policy will make the sago as golden crop of Sarawak.

Analysis of Air Quality in the UK

Analysis of Air Quality in the UK Introduction Air pollution has always been a major area of concern in the developed world, especially in major cities. Air pollution is defined as- ‘the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour in quantities and of characteristics and duration such as to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property, or to interfere unreasonably with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. In the past there have been severe problems with air quality in the United Kingdom, especially in major cities such as London. In 1952 the Great London Smog, which came about due to an increase in industrialisation, caused heavy smoke to settle over the city for days and caused thousands of deaths. Fortunately, the air quality in London has substantially improved since then and visible air pollution, such as dust, smoke, and smog has mostly disappeared due to UK and European legislation and initiatives. However, there have been more recent instances of deaths caused by air pollution. In 2003, during Londons summer smog episode in August there were a total of between 46 and 212 premature deaths from ozone and 85 from particulate matter. Londons summer smog episode in July 2006 was likely to have resulted in a similar or greater number of deaths from ozone and a slightly lower number for particulate matter. Due these events and increase public awareness or the damaging effects of air pollution, the United Kingdom government has put various legislation and initiatives in place to improve air quality. Air pollutants are mainly caused by human activities that have serious health effects on human health, wildlife, and the environment. As well, car and aviation pollution are major sources of many air pollutants and the number of vehicles and aircrafts are increasing. These pollutants all contribute to climate change, which could lead to flooding and extreme weather. Environmental legislation that deals with air pollution has aimed to improve air quality through a variety of measures. Furthermore, initiatives such as the National Air Quality Strategy and preventative systems like the precautionary, preventative and polluter pays principles also aim to improve air quality. Other proposals include reducing car emissions, buying locally produced goods and turning off electronic devices when not in use. Air Pollutants Many activities that seem harmless on the surface contribute to air pollution, from driving a car to using hairspray. The main pollutants of concern that affect air quality include, but are not limited to; particulate matter, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). These pollutants can have serious health effects in both the long and short term. Particulate matter is non-visible airborne particles and the main source is the emissions from diesel engines. When inhaled, particulate matter can reach deep in the lungs where it can produce inflammation and worsen heart and lung diseases in sufferers of these conditions. Volatile organic compounds are mainly released in vehicle exhaust gases, usually as unburned fuels. These compounds can irritate the lungs and lower resistance to certain infections. Chlorofluorocarbons are a product of aerosol sprays, solvents, etc that undergo a major reaction that destroys the ozone. The ozone is vital as it protects life from ultraviolet radiation. Also, CFCs can have a more visible effect as it has been known to irritate the lungs and increase the symptoms in sufferers of asthma and lung diseases. Other possible long term health effects include cancer, liver and kidney damage, and birth defects. Sulphur dioxide is released into the air due to the burning of fossil fuels which contain sulphur, the most common source being coal fired power stations. It is an acidic gas which can combine with water vapour to produce acid rain, which has been linked to the death of wildlife in some cases, as well as to the corrosion of buildings. It can cause a decrease in lung function in persons who already suffer from respiratory problems. Thus, it is clear to see why it is important to reduce these pollutants as much as possible to ensure the safety of the population. Car Pollution Motor Vehicles are one of the major sources of air pollution in the United Kingdom by causing carbon dioxide emissions at a total of 22%. Other air pollutants from motor vehicles include nitrogen oxides, particles, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. This will not change in the near future as traffic levels are predicted to continue to rise. All of these pollutants have a damaging impact on human health and flora and fauna. The UK Government has introduced measures to combat this form of air pollution. The annual Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) was introduced in 2001 as a way to tax motor vehicles based on predicted carbon dioxide emissions and the type of fuel used. In addition, tax discounts are available for users who buy bio-fuel and hybrid electric vehicles. In this way, car owners are encouraged to buy vehicles which are less harmful to the environment. Aviation Pollution In 2006, approximately 240 million passengers passed through the main UK airports and the government predicts that by 2020 this will increase to 400 million passengers. Pollutant emissions from aircrafts are rising with the increasing amount of flights. Previously, the main pollutant that was emitted from aircrafts was nitrogen oxides (NOx). These are harmful as they contribute to the making of ozone which has a major part in global warming; however this is not a problem of recent for civil aviation with the decommissioning of the Concorde. As well, aircrafts are a major source of carbon dioxide emissions and these emissions at a higher altitude are thought to have a greater effect on climate change than emissions on the ground. In fact, it is likely that the aviation sector will become the main source of carbon dioxide in the near future. Climate Change Along with directly harming human health as mentioned, another effect that these pollutants cause is climate change, which implies a significant change from one climatic condition to another. This happens when the emission of greenhouse gases trap the radiation emitted by the earths surface which raises the air temperature. There are predictions that this can cause changes such as the melting of polar ice caps which could cause flooding in low-lying areas. The ‘greenhouse effect, as this is called, continues to increase as the emissions of these gases are on the rise and the government is following the Kyoto Protocol targets in order to reduce these emissions. As well, the UK launched a climate change program in 2000 with the aim of helping the UK to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5% by 2012 and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 20% by 2010. The reduction of greenhouse gas emission is done through integrated pollution prevention and control permits. The two main economic instruments used to combat climate change in the United Kingdom are the climate change levy and the national emissions trading scheme. The Climate Change Levy (CCL), which was introduced in the Finance Act 2000, is an energy usage tax that is levied on users in the industrial and public sector. There are also discount schemes in place, as well as an incentive to companies as they can reclaim 100% of capital allowance for energy efficient products within the first year of expenditure. The national emissions trading scheme is a voluntary measure which began in 2002 and aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by allowing participants to buy and sell allowances to produce emissions. The scheme was devised by the Emissions Trading Authority. The allowances are based on specific reduction target agreed on by the participants. One of the critiques of the scheme is that any reduction in emissions is not necessarily linked to the trading scheme. Current Legislation Air pollution is a challenging area of environmental law to regulate. This is because emissions can diffuse quickly and it can be difficult to identity the sources of pollution. Although the UK government has been accused of being reactive rather than proactive with regards to environmental regulation, the government has passed various laws in an effort to combat air pollution. The first of such laws was passed in response to the Great London Smog, and called the Clean Air Act 1956. The act aimed to protect the environment by controlling and reducing sources of smoke pollution including smoke, dust, and fumes from all fires and furnaces by introducing smokeless zones in the city. This act was supplemented by the Clean Air Act 1968, and both acts were consolidated in the Clean Air Act 1993. As well, The Environment Act 1995 contains a number of provisions which enabled the development of various policies on air pollution. It requires all local authorities in the UK to review and assess air quality in their area. If any standards are unlikely to be met by the required date, then that area will be designated an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) and the local authority must implement an action plan aimed at reducing levels of the pollutant. Furthermore, some local authorities have adopted specific bye laws to control sources of air pollution. However, these can be difficult to enforce because surveillance is complicated and it is not easy to find those responsible. In terms of traffic control, the Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997 places a duty on local authorities to continually review traffic levels on roads and to produce targets for lowering traffic numbers. Local authorities have the power to do this by issuing Traffic Regulation Orders (TROs) which can be used to achieve air quality objectives by restricting traffic in certain areas. Also, under the Transport Act 2000, every local transport authority must create Local Transport Plans (LTP) which give details for promoting public transport and charging levies to vehicle uses. Finally, the Air Quality (England) Regulations 2000 sets down the targets for air quality in each area starting from the end of 2003 to 2008. These objectives are to reduce the main pollutants of concern and are set in relation to the effect on human health, as well as its effect on the environment in general. Initiatives The National Air Quality Strategy is the main policy that sets out UK air quality standards and objectives for reducing levels of health-threatening pollutants and maintaining or improving air quality levels. Its power comes from section 80 of the Environment Act 1995. The levels of reduction have been set on the basis of scientific and medical evidence on the health effects of the various pollutants, and according to how realistic the standards to be met are. Many of these standards are the product of UK incorporation of European law. The targets laid out by the strategy are usually achieved by pollution control legislation through the setting of emission limits. However, though the environment act provides a power to prescribe standards, the strategy has no statutory force. The system of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) is the main form of pollution regulation in the UK, and gets its power under the Environmental Protection Act 1990. It aims to ensure that solutions that have a positive impact on one area of the environment, does not have a negative impact on another i.e. to have more integrated solutions. The system involves issuing a permit and conditions are based on the use of Best Available Techniques (BAT), which balances the costs of preventing environmental impacts against benefits to the environment. Where a breach of legally binding EU air quality limit values is caused by a particular industrial installation or sector, more stringent permit limits than BAT can be imposed. A number of smaller installations are covered by Local Authority Pollution Prevention and Control (LAPPC), which controls emissions to air only. The Precautionary and Preventative Principles These principles are methods of protecting the environment from damage. This precautionary principle states that precautions should be taken to protect human health and the environment, even in the event of a lack of evidence of harm caused. However, critics say it does not specify how much caution should be taken. As well week precaution, which is used in the UK, only requires precautionary measures to be taken when the balance of cost and benefits justifies doing so. This basically means that persons can cause environmental damage as long as it is a net gainer to do so, which does not let the public know the importance of protecting the environment. The preventative principle is more widely acceptable. It states that the damage should be prevented in advance rather than taken care of after the fact. It also requires the preventative measures to be based on scientific standards. Thus, it is more likely to be accepted by big corporations as it is a more proven measure. The Polluter Pays Principle The polluter pays principle is a policy developed by the EC. It means that the person or organisation that caused the pollution should pay for the cost of the pollution. This includes direct and indirect costs as well as costs incurred by avoiding pollution. However is should be noted that this principle, though followed, has no statutory force. This policy has major criticism because it is hard to determine the limits on payment for damage caused. It is also difficult to identify the polluter. In most instances, only certain polluters are targeted which brings harsh criticism and questions the validity of the policy. As well, it could give the impression that pollution is acceptable as long as you pay for it which sends the wrong message. Proposals The only way that the above mentioned legislations and initiatives will work in todays society is if there is a greater emphasis on public awareness of the effects of air pollution on our environment. The most efficient starting point in combating air pollution is by seeking to reduce emissions in motor vehicles, as well as reducing the number of vehicles. This can be done through the promotion of public transport and carpooling. Also, there should be more encouragement of buying local goods, as the longer the distance that goods are transported, the more air pollution is generated. Thus, if more people consumed locally produced goods it would go a long way in reducing air pollution and improving air quality. Finally, if people switch off their electronic devices when they are not using them and use energy-saving light bulbs, they can save on their electricity bill as well as reduce the amount of pollutants that are emitted into the air. Therefore, if less electricity is used then le ss power is produced and fewer pollutants will be released into the air. Conclusion The environment is obviously very important for various reasons, and every effort must be made to protect it to the greatest extent possible. It can be seen that air pollution has a significant negative impact on human health, wildlife, architecture and the environment in general. This is mostly caused by certain human activities and by reducing them we can improve air quality. These improvements include taking non-vehicle means of transportation, buying locally produced goods, switching off electronic appliances and buying energy-saving light bulbs. However, air pollution is a difficult area of environmental law to navigate, as the range of polluters and the sources of pollutants are varied and difficult to identity. It is important to continue improvements of air quality in the UK, especially in light of upcoming events such as the Olympics in 2012. As Philip Mulligan, Chief Executive of Environmental Protection UK, said: With current concerns regarding the air quality in Beijing for the Olympics this summer, it is only fitting that London takes steps to ensure that air quality standards are met in the capital, in time for the 2012 games. It is important that the United Kingdom is seen as a leader in protecting the environment, as a lot of countries look the UK for guidance on important issues such as these.

Comparing Mens Assumptions in Susan Glaspells Trifles and Henrik Ibse

Men's Assumptions in Trifles and A Doll House There are many similarities in the relationships between men and women in Susan Glaspell's Trifles and Henrik Ibsen's A Doll House. The conflict in each play is the result of incorrect assumptions made by the males of a male-dominated society. The men believe that women focus on trivial matters and are incapable of intelligent thinking, while the women quietly prove the men's assumptions wrong. In the plays Trifles and A Doll House men believe women only focus on trivial matters. While Mrs. Wright is being held in jail for the murder of her husband, she is concerned about the cold weather causing her jars of fruit to freeze and burst. Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale discuss Mrs. Wright's concern over her canned fruit after finding a broken jar. Mrs. Peters voices Mrs. Wright's concern, "She said the fir'd go out and her jars would break" (Glaspell 1.27). The Sheriff's response is, "Well can you beat the women! Held for murder and worryin' about her preserves" (Glaspell 1.28). The women realize the hard work involved in canning this fruit and understand Mrs. Wright's concern. The men see this as unimportant compared to the trouble Mrs. Wright is facing. Likewise, in Isben's play A Doll House Helmer believes that his wife Nora only focuses on trivial matters. Three weeks prior to Christmas Nora spent every evening working alone. Helmer believes that Nora is making the family Christmas ornaments and other treats for the Christmas holidays. In reality, Nora is working for money to repay a loan that she illegally acquired when Helmer was ill. The house cat is blamed for destroying the nonexisting ornaments. Helmer reminds her of the long hours spent away from the family. Helmer sa... ...n, John S. Ibsen: The Open Vision. 1982. Durbach, Errol. A Doll's House: Ibsen's Myth of Transformation. Boston: Twayne, 1991. Glaspell, Susan. "Trifles." Plays by Susan Glaspell. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company,   Inc., 1920. Reprinted in Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry and Drama.   X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia Eds. New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1995.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Glaspell, Susan. Trifles. Making Literature Matter: An Anthology for Readers and Writers. Ed. John Schilb and John Clifford. Boston: Bedford / St. Martin's, 2000. 127-137. Ibsen, Henrik. A Doll House (1879). Trans. Rolf Fjelde. Rpt. in Michael Meyer, ed. The Bedford Introduction to Literature. 5th edition. Boston & New York: Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1999. 1564-1612. Templeton, Joan. "The Doll House Backlash: Criticism, Feminism, and Ibsen." PMLA (January 1989): 28-40.    Comparing Men's Assumptions in Susan Glaspell's Trifles and Henrik Ibse Men's Assumptions in Trifles and A Doll House There are many similarities in the relationships between men and women in Susan Glaspell's Trifles and Henrik Ibsen's A Doll House. The conflict in each play is the result of incorrect assumptions made by the males of a male-dominated society. The men believe that women focus on trivial matters and are incapable of intelligent thinking, while the women quietly prove the men's assumptions wrong. In the plays Trifles and A Doll House men believe women only focus on trivial matters. While Mrs. Wright is being held in jail for the murder of her husband, she is concerned about the cold weather causing her jars of fruit to freeze and burst. Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale discuss Mrs. Wright's concern over her canned fruit after finding a broken jar. Mrs. Peters voices Mrs. Wright's concern, "She said the fir'd go out and her jars would break" (Glaspell 1.27). The Sheriff's response is, "Well can you beat the women! Held for murder and worryin' about her preserves" (Glaspell 1.28). The women realize the hard work involved in canning this fruit and understand Mrs. Wright's concern. The men see this as unimportant compared to the trouble Mrs. Wright is facing. Likewise, in Isben's play A Doll House Helmer believes that his wife Nora only focuses on trivial matters. Three weeks prior to Christmas Nora spent every evening working alone. Helmer believes that Nora is making the family Christmas ornaments and other treats for the Christmas holidays. In reality, Nora is working for money to repay a loan that she illegally acquired when Helmer was ill. The house cat is blamed for destroying the nonexisting ornaments. Helmer reminds her of the long hours spent away from the family. Helmer sa... ...n, John S. Ibsen: The Open Vision. 1982. Durbach, Errol. A Doll's House: Ibsen's Myth of Transformation. Boston: Twayne, 1991. Glaspell, Susan. "Trifles." Plays by Susan Glaspell. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company,   Inc., 1920. Reprinted in Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry and Drama.   X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia Eds. New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1995.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Glaspell, Susan. Trifles. Making Literature Matter: An Anthology for Readers and Writers. Ed. John Schilb and John Clifford. Boston: Bedford / St. Martin's, 2000. 127-137. Ibsen, Henrik. A Doll House (1879). Trans. Rolf Fjelde. Rpt. in Michael Meyer, ed. The Bedford Introduction to Literature. 5th edition. Boston & New York: Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1999. 1564-1612. Templeton, Joan. "The Doll House Backlash: Criticism, Feminism, and Ibsen." PMLA (January 1989): 28-40.   

The Ethics of Xenotransplantation Essay -- Morals Science Biology Essa

The Ethics of Xenotransplantation 1. Introduction to Xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation is the process of taking cells, parts of organs, or even whole organs from one species of animal, and implanting them into another species. The FDA has given their own definition of xenotransplantation which they say is â€Å"any procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation, or infusion into a human recipient of either live cells, tissues, or organs from a non human animal source, or human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have had ex vivo contact with live non human animal cells, tissues or organs.† The main interest of the practice is to be able to take organs from animals for the purpose of using them in humans in need of organ transplants. It is still a relatively new medical phenomena, with documented cases of the practice only taking place since 1906. 2. The Case The case at hand is whether or not we should use xenotransplantation in humans. It is a rather controversial topic that has brought up strong feelings in parties on both sides of the argument. One of the main arguments of the people who are for xenotransplantation is that there is a large shortage of organs available for transplant, and that animal organs could provide enough spares to satiate the need. A recent figure given by the FDA is that currently 13 people die per day in the U.S. because of the lack of organs available for transplant. Meanwhile, one of the arguments of those people against xenotransplantation stems from animal rights. Some people feel that it is wrong to use animals in such a way and that there is a great potential for animal abuse. A marker to the seriousness of the current need for donor organs is that ac... ...an. 1998. <http://wedge.nando.net/newsroom/ntn/health/012198/health5_26375_noframes.html> 3. United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). "U.S. Facts about Transplantation." Nov. 2000. <http://www.unos.org/Newsroom/critdata_main.htm> 4. Koshal, Arvind. "Ethics Issues in Xenotransplantation." University of Alberta. 1993? <http://www.ualberta.ca/~ethics/bb6-3xen.htm> 5. Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research. "FDA Approach to the Regulation of Xenotransplantation." 19 Oct. 2000. <http://www.fda.gov/cber/xap/xap.htm> 6. National Academy Press. "Xenotransplantation: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy." 1996. <http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/xeno/> 7. Michaels, Marian. "Defining the Risks and the Risk Reduction Strategies." 27 Feb. 1998. <http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/topics/xenotransplantation/2098.3896.html>

Vonnegut social commentary in cats cradle Essays -- essays research pa

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social Commentary in Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kurt Vonnegut’s science fiction novel, Cat’s Cradle, is chocked full of social commentary, satirical humor, and an overall pessimistic view on American Society. Through the fictional religion Bokononism Vonnegut introduces us to John, a young man who is writing a book about the day the atomic bomb was dropped. His research led him to the late Dr. Felix Hoenikker, a brilliant scientist who was deemed the â€Å"father of the atomic bomb.† Anxious to learn more about Hoenikker from his surviving children, John followed them to the impecunious island of San Lorenzo. In San Lorenzo John was introduced to Bokononism, the dominant (yet illegal) religion of the island; which among its many bizarre features, openly proclaimed that it was a total lie. While on the island, John also learned more about Ice Nine, the final project that Hoenikker created. Ice Nine ( a simple rearrangement of water molecules) had the ability to freeze instantly any body of w ater, due to a complex crystalline formation. Although the ice was to be Hoenikker’s great gift to the military to freeze swamps during battle, so they could move troops more efficiently; it ended up being a creation more fatal than the atomic bomb itself. Subsequently John's adventures came to a harsh, if strangely appropriate end caused by the selfishness of human nature. The moral of the story, laced with deception, ignorance, self-indulgence, and control is that life is entirely worthless and fails to serve a purpose. Yet, the comic relief and vivacity of the novel gives it power and charm, curiously contrasted with its depressing meaning.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning of the novel, the reader is introduced to the deceased Felix Hoenikker, a man who was full of curiosity and had an uncanny regard for everything scientific. Not only was he the father of the atomic bomb, but shortly before his death he created the destructive Ice Nine. With the ability to freeze anything liquid it was essentially the end of the world, should it get into the wrong hands. Although the original intention of the water derived destructor was to help soldiers solidify swampy muck when fighting wars, so they could easily get through was... ...uous activities he took part in at Jack’s Hobby Shop. Throughout the book, Frank is described as a quiet loner, someone who was out of the social realms of normal teenage life. Frank said â€Å"...but they didn’t know what really went on there. They would have been really surprised, especially the girls-- in they’d found out what really went on. The girls didn’t think I knew anything about girls.† (201, Vonnegut). When John asked him what he really was doing there, Frank simply said, â€Å"I was screwing Jack’s wife all day.† (Vonnegut, 201). This was Vonnegut’s way of using satire and irony to show that people make skewed judgments on others based on nothing more than what they want to believe.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, Cat’s Cradle is a fabulously constructed book, filled with sarcasm, wit, irony, and satire to express Vonnegut’s personal views on Human Society. Although it ends with the destruction of the world from the lethal Ice Nine, the book is somewhat redeemed by its humorous anecdotes, and clever allusions. Vonnegut successfully portrayed his pessimistic views of our society, and opened the reader up to a completely new way of thinking in terms of human nature.

Government Intervention Essay

Discuss the case for and against government intervention in an economy. In most of the countries, the government has intervened in the market system. To some extent there is a dire need of government intervention in the market system, although there is a debate over this point among the economists. Many economists believe that the role of government intervention improves the market system. The government can easily enforce the rules that can help in the smooth functioning of the market system. On the other hand, there are economists who believe that government interventions in a market system are the reason of inefficiency in the system. There are some goods that underprovided and underconsumed. Such goods are cold merit goods. They can be defined in terms of their externality effects and also in terms of informational problems facing the consumer. A merit good is a product that society values and judges that everyone should have regardless of whether an individual wants them. In this sense, the government is acting paternally in providing merit goods and services. They believe that individuals may not act in their own best interest in part because of imperfect information about the benefits that can be derived. Good examples of merit goods include health services, education, and work training programmes. Why does the government provide merit goods and services? * To encourage consumption so that some of the positive externalities associated with merit goods can be achieved * To overcome the information failures linked to merit goods, not least when the longer-term private benefit of consumption is greater than the shorter-term benefit of consumption * On grounds of equity – because the government believes that consumption should not be based solely on the grounds of ability to pay for a good or service Education is an example of a merit good. Education should provide a number of external benefits that might not be taken into account by the free market. These include rising incomes and productivity for current and future generations; an increase in the occupational mobility of the labour force which should help to reduce unemployment and therefore reduce welfare spending. However, there are some goods which are thought to be ‘bad’ for you. They are cold demerit goods. Examples include the costs arising from consumption of alcohol, cigarettes and drugs together with the social effects of addiction to gambling. The consumption of demerit goods can lead to negative externalities. The government seeks to reduce consumption of demerit goods. Consumers may be unaware of the negative externalities that these goods create – they have imperfect information about long-term damage to their own health. The government may decide to intervene in the market for demerit goods and impose taxes on producers and / or consumers. Higher taxes cause prices to rise and should lead to a fall in demand. However high taxes increase unemployment because firms may relocate abroad increases cost of production for firms making the less competitive to firms in another countries where no tax is applied. But many economists argue that taxation is an ineffective and inequitable way of curbing the consumption of drugs and gambling particularly for those affected by addiction. Banning consumption through regulation may reduce demand, but risks creating secondary (illegal) or underground markets in the product. Market failure with demerit goods – the free market may fail to take into account the negative externalities of consumption because the social cost is less then private cost. Consumers too may experience imperfect information about the long term costs to themselves of consuming products deemed to be demerit goods. The social optimal level of consumption would be Q3 – the output that takes into account the information failure of consumers and also the negative externalities. One way to solve this problem is to try to remove the information failure. Information deficits can often lead to a misallocation of resources and hence the possibility of market failure. Information failure occurs when people have inaccurate, incomplete, uncertain or misunderstood data and so make potentially ‘wrong’ choices. Government action can have a role in improving information to help consumers and producers value the ‘true’ cost and/or benefit of a good or service. Examples might include: * Compulsory labeling on cigarette packages with health warnings to reduce smoking * Improved nutritional information on foods to counter the risks of growing obesity * Anti speeding television advertising to reduce road accidents and advertising campaigns to raise awareness of the risks of drink-driving * Advertising health screening programmes / information campaigns on the dangers of addiction Another dvantage of government intervention is the national minimum wage. The national minimum wage was introduced into the UK in 1999. It is an intervention in the labour market designed to increase the pay of lower-paid workers and thereby influence the distribution of income in society. In October 2005, the value of the minimum wage for adults was ? 5. 05 – following a series of small increases over recent years. The main aims of the minimum wage 1. The equity justification: That every job should offer a fair rate of pay commensurate with the skills and experience of an employee 2. Labour market incentives: The NMW is designed to improve the incentives for people to start looking for work – thereby boosting the economy’s available labour supply 3. Labour market discrimination: The NMW is a tool designed to offset some of the effects of persistent discrimination of many low-paid female workers and younger employees A diagram showing the possible effects of a minimum wage is shown above. The market equilibrium wage for this particular labour market is at W1 (where demand = supply). If the minimum wage is set at Wmin, there will be an excess supply of labour equal to E3 – E2 because the supply of labour will expand (more workers will be willing and able to offer themselves for work at the higher wage than before) but there is a risk that the demand for workers from employers (businesses) will contract if the minimum wage is introduced. Although all political parties are now committed to keeping the minimum wage, there are still plenty of economists who believe that setting a pay floor represents a distortion to the way the labour market works because it reduces the flexibility of the labour market 1. Competitiveness and Jobs: Firstly a minimum wage may cost jobs because a rise in labour costs makes it more expensive to employ people and higher labour costs might damage the international competitiveness of British producers. To the extent that rising unemployment worsens the living standards of those affected it has a negative impact on poverty. 2. Effect on relative poverty: Is the minimum wage the most effective policy to reduce relative poverty? There is evidence that it tends to boost the incomes of middle-income households where more than one household member is lready in work whereas the greatest risk of relative poverty is among the unemployed, elderly and single parent families where the parent is not employed. Government intervenes to stabilise farmer’s income and reduce price fluctuations using buffer stock schemes. The prices of agricultural products tend to fluctuate more violently than the price of manufactured products and services. This is largely due to the volatility in the supply of agricultural products coupled with the fact that demand and supply are price inelastic. Buffer stock schemes seek to stabilise the market price of agricultural products by buying up supplies of the product when harvests are plentiful and selling stocks of the product onto the market when supplies are low. The supply curves S1 and S2 represent the supply of wheat at the end of two different seasons. Supply is perfectly inelastic since farmers cannot change the quantity supplied onto the market post harvest. The organisation wishes to keep price fluctuations within a certain band: it will not allow the price of the product to rise above P max or to fall below P min. Assume that in one particular year there is a bumper harvest so that S1 is supplied onto the market. In absence of any intervention the market price would drop below P min, so the organisation buys up AB of the product to increase the market price up to P min. In the next year bad weather may result in a poor harvest so that only S2 is supplied. The market price would rise above the maximum permitted by the organisation, so the organisation sells CD of its stocks onto the market to reduce the price to P max. In contrast buffer stocks do not often work well in practice. Perishable items can not be stored for long periods of time and can therefore be immediately ruled out of buffer stock schemes. There are also high administrative and storage costs to be considered. Also education or healh sphere can suffer. The economists have a mixed view about the importance and effects of government intervention in the market system, it can be said that government interventions should aim at working with the market system that is already existing rather than implementing policies that make great changes. If the government intervention is such that it introduces inefficiencies greater than rationalizing the entire market system, there is a threat of damaging the economy. The distorted government intervention can lead to consumer dissatisfaction and higher costs. Most of the economists are of the view that government interventions should be facilitating in nature rather than having a direct control over the market.